[citation needed] It eventually became isolated, its economy slumped and Aksum's commercial domination of the region ended. The occupation government closed all schools operated by the Ethiopian church, or by missionaries. In the 4thcentury, under King Ezana of Axum, the kingdom adopted Christianity as the state religion that evolved into the Orthodox Tewahedo (Ethiopian Orthodox and Eritrean Orthodox) denominational Church. [54], The Sultanate of Aussa (Afar Sultanate) succeeded the earlier Imamate of Aussa. Iyoas further increased the favor given to the Oromo when adult. The success of this mission opened Ethiopia to many more travellers, missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the stream of Europeans continued until well into Tewodros's reign. [75][76], Modernization became a priority for the Haile Selassie regime; it began with expanded education opportunities beyond the small old-fashioned schools run by the Ethiopian church. The Italians, after their final stand at Gondar in November 1941, conducted a guerrilla war in Ethiopia, that lasted until summer 1943. This was pending the return of Crown Prince Asfaw Wossen from medical treatment in Europe when he would assume the throne as a constitutional monarch. The new Zagwe dynasty established its capital at Roha (also called Adefa), where they build a series of monolithic churches. Tewodros II and Tekle Giyorgis II (18551872), Iyasu V, Zauditu and Haile Selassie (19131936), Tigray People's Liberation Front dominance (19912018). Under the Emperors Tewodros II (18551868), Yohannes IV (18721889), and Menelik II (18891913), the empire began to emerge from its isolation. These structures are traditionally ascribed to the King Gebre Mesqel Lalibela, with the city being renamed Lalibela in his honour; though in truth some of them were built before and after him. The war lasted seven months before an Italian victory was declared. Eventually Kaleb abdicated in favor of his son Wa'zeb and retired to a monastery, where he ended his days. This victory allowed the empire to reconquer progressively the Ethiopian Highlands. Cover of The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire by Raymond Jonas. [37] In 1559 Gelawdewos was killed attempting to invade Adal Sultanate at the Battle of Fatagar, and his severed head was paraded in Adal's capital Harar. [98] The Negus suffered criticism due to the expenses involved in fighting the Nationalist forces. Medieval and Other Early Settlements Between Wechecha Range and Mt Yerer", https://books.google.com/books?id=dvk8AAAAIAAJ&q=Lisane+amharic#v=snippet&q=Lisane%20amharic&f=false, https://books.google.com/books?id=3VYBDgAAQBAJ&q=Lisane#v=snippet&q=Lisane&f=false, Africa: Rivista Trimestrale di Studi e Documentazione dell'istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, The History of Islam in Africa - Google Books", "An Amharic Manuscript on the Mythical History of the Adi kyaz (Dizi, South-West Ethiopia)", "Ethiopia Executes 60 Former Officials, Including 2 Premiers and Military Chief", "The Politics of Linguistic Homogenization in Ethiopia and the Conflict over the Status of "Afaan Oromoo", http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/720181468749078939/pdf/multi-page.pdf, https://books.google.com/books?id=7fArBgAAQBAJ&dq=chewa%20ehiopia&pg=PA49, https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/ethio_0066-2127_2014_num_29_1_1559.pdf, "Feudalism in Ethiopia: A Further Comment on Paradigms and Their Use", "Ethiopia: A Survey on the Existence of a Feudal Peasantry", "Peasants and Feudalism in Africa: The Case of Ethiopia", "The Politics of Banking: The Bank of Abyssinia, 1905-1931", "The Birth and Development of Banking Services in Ethiopia", "Haile Selassie I University - Five Year Plan 1967 - 1971", "An Overview of Ethiopia's Planning Experience", "Industry and Industrialization in Ethiopia: Policy Dynamics and Spatial Distributions", "The Ethiopian Empire: Progress and Problems", "Revised Constitution of the Empire of Ethiopia", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethiopian_Empire&oldid=1152312720, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing Amharic-language text, Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2018, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1922 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier's Encyclopedia, Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the World Factbook, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Regiments at the court, under high court officials, Regiments in the provinces, under regional Rases or other officials, Regiments in border regions, or more autonomous provinces, such as, "Empire" as a description of foreign policy, This page was last edited on 29 April 2023, at 13:29. [20] Under the rule of Zara Yaqob (14341468), the Hadiya Sultanate was invaded by Ethiopia and the captured Hadiya princess Eleni converted to Christianity leading to her marriage to Zara Yacob. Emperor Tewodros II (r. 18551868) put an end to that state, reunified the Empire and led it into the modern period before dying during the British Expedition to Abyssinia. In 1509, Empress Dowager Eleni, the underage Emperor's regent, sent an Armenian named Matthew to the king of Portugal to request his aid against the Muslims. The Italian military dropped mustard gas in bombs, sprayed it from airplanes and spread it in powdered form on the ground. Vestal, Theodor M. (2007). 2019 June - Army chief Seare Mekonnen and Amhara State Governor Ambachew Mekonnen killed while putting down coup attempt against the federal government. Richard Lobban, Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia, Scarecrow Press, 2004. p.11i. The new regime in Ethiopia met with armed resistance from the large landowners, the royalists and the nobility. International pressures forced action, and it was required for membership in the League of Nations. A remote province such as Bale is last recorded paying tribute to the imperial throne during Yaqob reign (1590-1607).[41]. The oldest hominid discovered to date in Ethiopia is the 4.2 million year old Ardipithicus ramidus (Ardi) found by Tim D. White in 1994. Abyssinia] and of Axum." Her cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was made regent and successor to the throne. In Gona stone tools were uncovered in 1992 that were 2.52 million years old, the oldest such tools discovered anywhere in the world. "'For God, Emperor, and Country!' 2005 April - First section of Axum obelisk, looted by Italy in 1937, is returned to Ethiopia from Rome. Apr 26, 1858. [65] The Italians notified the European powers that this treaty gave them a protectorate over all of Ethiopia. This help led to the 1974 coup of Mengistu. 2007 January - Islamists abandon their last stronghold, the southern port of Kismayo. A general election in 1995 to elect the Parliament also elected Meles Zenawi as prime minister and Negasso Gidada as president. In 1989, the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Organised farming begins in Egypt. Like many other nations and denominations, the Ethiopian Church maintained a series of small chapels and even an annex at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. His two edicts provide evidence of Ethiopia's contact with these Crusader States during this period. As a result, the Treaty of Addis Ababa was signed in October, which strictly delineated the borders of Eritrea and forced Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia. [18], Founded in 1270 by the Solomonic dynasty nobleman Yekuno Amlak, who claimed to descend from the last Aksumite king and ultimately the Biblical Menelik I and the Queen of Sheba, it replaced the Agaw kingdom of the Zagwe. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. King Menelik II used strategic advantages and played European countries against each other to maintain the Ethiopian independence. The new government undertook socialist reforms, including nationalisation of landlords' property[102] and the church's property. WWW-VL History Index of Ethiopia a member of the www-vl history network and integrated with other members of that network, this site in a multilingual index or collection of links or pointers to internet materials relative to the African nation or country of Ethiopia WWW-VL HISTORY ETHIOPIA News from Ethiopia L'actualit du Ethiopie Dorrance Publishing. [68] During the conquest of the Oromo, the Ethiopian Army carried genocidal mass atrocities against the Oromo population including mass mutilation, mass killings and large-scale slavery. Ethiopia defeated an Egyptian invasion in 1876 and an Italian invasion in 1896 which killed 17,000 Ethiopians,[4] and came to be recognized as a legitimate state by European powers. Abraha later made peace with Kaleb's successor and recognized his suzerainty. Vol. [115], Protests broke out across the country, many from the largest ethnic group, the Oromo, in 2016 demanding an end to human rights abuses and the release of political prisoners. Around the World of Orthodox Christianity - Five Hundred Million Strong: The Unifying Aesthetic Beauty. The following April 1977, Ethiopia abrogated its military assistance agreement with the United States and expelled the American military missions. [citation needed], In the 17th century, Ethiopian emperor Susenyos I relied on Oromo support to gain power, and married an Oromo woman. Imperialism Timeline. After fierce resistance, and the start of an armed rebellion in Eritrea, the Emperor decided to end the federation in 1962 and annexed Eritrea into a province of Ethiopia. Zera Yaqob is known for his treatise on religion, morality, and reason, known as Hatata. Mengistu fled the country to asylum in Zimbabwe, where he still resides. In the aftermath of the war Italy annexed Ethiopia, uniting it with Italy's other colonies in eastern Africa to form the new colony of Italian East Africa, and Victor Emmanuel III of Italy adopted the title "Emperor of Abyssinia". One was the French physician C.J. [45] Among the imperial troops was Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia. Noah Webster, The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments, in the Common Version, p. xiv. at the end of the 16th century. In July 1991, the EPRDF, the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and others, established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE), which was composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. Joo Bermudes, a subordinate member of the mission of 1520, who had remained in the country after the departure of the embassy, was sent to Lisbon. Laurent Bavay, Thierry de Putter, Barbara Adams, Jacques Novez, Luc Andr, 2000. 2006 December - Ethiopian and transitional government put Islamists to flight, capturing Mogadishu. 1977 - Somalia invades Ethiopia's Ogaden region, and are defeated the following year with massive help from the Soviet Union and Cuba. By 1543, Abyssinia had recaptured lost territory but the war had weakened both sides. According to the Kebra Nagast, Menelik I founded the Ethiopian empire in the 10thcentury BC. The Zagwe seem to have ruled over a mostly peaceful state with a flourishing urban culture, in contrast to the more warlike Solomonids with their mobile capitals. The reign of Iyasu the Great (1682-1706) was a major period of consolidation. [40], Oromo migrations through the same period, occurred with the movement of a large pastoral population from the southeastern provinces of the Empire. 1889 - Menelik signs a friendship treaty with Italy, which Italy interprets as a protectorate. 1 (11thed.). 1930 - Zawditu dies and is succeeded by Ras Tafari Makonnen, who becomes Emperor Haile Selassie I. Between 1528 and 1540, the Adal Sultanate attempted, under Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, to conquer the Ethiopian Empire. In 1994, a new constitution was written that formed a bicameral legislature and a judicial system. [23] Mahfuz's ambush and defeat by Emperor Lebna Dengel brought about the early 16th-century Jihad of the Adalite Imam Ahmed Gran, who was only defeated in 1543 with the help of the Portuguese. Mauri, Arnaldo (2009), "The re-establishment of the national monetary and banking system in Ethiopia, 19411963". The regime also conducted a brutal campaign of resettlement and villagization in Ethiopia in the 1980s. [93] More than 900km of railways were reconstructed, dams and hydroelectric plants were built, and many public and private companies were established. The Italians now came on the scene. Ethiopian troops are known to have made use of Dum-Dum bullets (in violation of the Hague Conventions) and mutilated captured soldiers (often with castration). Nelson Mandela. In 1977 Somalia invaded, trying to annex the Ogaden region, but were pushed back by Ethiopian, Soviet, and Cuban forces. However, General Aman Andom quarrelled with the radical elements in the Derg over the issue of a new military offensive in Eritrea and their proposal to execute the high officials of Selassie's former government. [42] Saladin, after retaking the Holy City in 1187, expressly invited the Ethiopian monks to return and even exempted Ethiopian pilgrims from the pilgrim tax. This bitter religious conflict contributed to hostility toward foreign Christians and Europeans, which persisted into the 20th century and was a factor in Ethiopia's isolation until the mid-19th century, when the first British mission, sent in 1805 to conclude an alliance with Ethiopia and obtain a port on the Red Sea in case France conquered Egypt. [33][34] During the Ifat Sultanate, Muslim relations with the Solomonic dynasty soured. In a recent Foreign Policy article, Robert D. Kaplan argues that Ethiopia will not fall apart despite the serious civil wars in which it is embroiled on several fronts. 150,000 chemical casualties were reported, mostly from mustard gas. "Society, State and Nationality in the Recent Historiography of Ethiopia", This page was last edited on 30 April 2023, at 08:41. Thus, by 1898 Ethiopia expanded into its modern territorial boundaries. In April 1888 the Italian forces, numbering over 20,000 men, came in contact with the Ethiopian army, but negotiations took the place of fighting, with the result that both forces retired, the Italians only leaving some 5,000 troops in Eritrea, later to become an Italian colony. He was deposed in 1916 by the Christian nobility, and Menelik's daughter, Zauditu, was made empress. The monarchy was formally abolished in March 1975, and Marxism-Leninism was proclaimed the new ideology of the state. Under the early Solomonic dynasty monasticism grew strongly. Issue 153 of ICG Africa report (4 September 2009) p. 2. Fasilides made Gondar his capital and built a castle there which would grow into the castle complex known as the Fasil Ghebbi, or Royal Enclosure. [11], Some of the earliest known evidence of early stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool of Homo sapiens), the stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the site of Gademotta, and date to around 279,000 years ago. Throughout much of its existence, it was surrounded by hostile forces in the African Horn; however, it managed to develop and preserve a kingdom based on its ancient form of Christianity. The Italian conquest of British Somaliland in August 1940 was successful, but the war turned against Italy afterward. 1974 - Haile Selassie overthrown in military coup, and dies in custody the following year. Mauri, Arnaldo (2003), "The early development of banking in Ethiopia". [68][69] Under the 1956 constitution Article 56, no one can be simultaneously a member of both chambers, who meet at the beginning or ending of each session. Bermudes claimed to be the ordained successor to the Abuna (archbishop), but his credentials are disputed. Detailed information about these two nations is sparse, and there are many theories concerning their locations and the ethnic relationship of their peoples. Menelik II. The Negus claimed that more than 275,000 Ethiopian fighters were killed compared to only 1,537 Italians, while the Italian authorities estimated that 16,000 Ethiopians and 2,700 Italians (including Italian colonial troops) died in battle. Others argued that she was from the Sultanate of Shewa and a daughter of the king of Lasta, situated in Bugna. It also saw the dispatching of embassies to Louis XIV's France and to Dutch India. Her attempt to continue in this role following the death of her son 1755 led her into conflict with Wubit (Welete Bersabe), his widow, who believed that it was her turn to preside at the court of her own son Iyoas. His mother, Empress Mentewab played a major role in Iyasu's reign, as well as her grandson Iyoas too. 1889 - Addis Ababa becomes Ethiopia's capital. [105] They were assisted in this invasion by the armed Western Somali Liberation Front. 1889 - Yohannes IV killed fighting Muslim forces and is succeeded by the king of Shoa, who becomes Emperor Menelik II. Imperialism in Africa. Inscriptions have been found in southern Arabia celebrating victories over one GDRT, described as "nagashi of Habashat [i.e. In 1445, following the Battle of Gomit, the chronicles record that Emperor Zara Yaqob started garrisoning the provinces with Chewa regiments. In 1529, the Adal Sultanate's forces led by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi invaded the Ethiopian Empire in what is known as the EthiopianAdal war. Tewodros forged an alliance between Britain and Ethiopia, but as explained in the next section, he committed suicide after a military defeat by the British. The Oromo Muslims regarded the Imam of Harar as their spiritual guide, while retaining some of their original culture and socio-political organisation. Much of these improvements were part of a plan to bring half a million Italians to colonize the Ethiopian plateaus. Menelik II was born Sahle Mariam on August 19, 1844, in Ankober, one of the capitals of . Apartheid South Africa Legislative Timeline. According to legends, during the execution of the royals, an infant heir of the Axumite monarch was carted off by some faithful adherents and conveyed to Shewa, where his authority was acknowledged. When Menelik II died, his grandson, Lij Iyassu, succeeded to the throne but soon lost support because of his Muslim ties. [10] In 2004 fossils found near the Omo river at Kibbish by Richard Leakey in 1967 were redated to 195,000 years old, the oldest date in East Africa for modern Homo sapiens. It was officially endorsed by 81% of voters, and in accordance with this new constitution, the country was renamed the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on September 10, 1987, and Mengistu became president. Combined with rising inflation, corruption, a famine that affected several provinces (especially Welo and Tigray) but was concealed from the outside world, and the growing discontent of urban interest groups, the country was ripe for revolution. [48], Towards the close of the 15th century the Portuguese missions into Ethiopia began. This dating is tentative, however, as the basis of the year 525 CE for the invasion is based on the death of the ruler of Yemen at the time, who very well could have been Kaleb's viceroy. [71][69][72] Large-scale atrocities were also committed against the Dizi people and the people of the Kaficho kingdom. Scholars debate whether she was a Jew, an Agaw, a Beja, or an enslaved servant of an Aksumite emperor who wanted to lead pagans against Christianity. In ancient times it remained centred on Aksum, an imperial capital located in the northern part of the modern state, about 100 miles (160 km) from the Red Sea coast. The Zagwe dynasty controlled a smaller area than the Aksumites or the Solomonic dynasty, with its core in the Lasta region. For other uses, see, The location of the Ethiopian Empire during the reign of. The Princes Era ended with the reign of Emperor Tewodros II. Solomonic dynasty. Chief of the notables opposing him was its king Haile Melekot, a descendant of Meridazmach Asfa Wossen. Scholars believe the Oromo converted to Islam as a means of preserving their identity and a bulwark against assimilation into Ethiopia. Farmers and herders travel south from Ethiopia and settle in Kenya. The Ethiopian's later received Portuguese reinforcements. Ras Mikael soon had him murdered, and underage Tekle Haymanot II was elevated to the throne. Bruce subsequently returned to Egypt at the end of 1772 by way of the upper Atbara, through the kingdom of Sennar, the Nile, and the Korosko desert. [80] Some 78,500 patriots (guerrilla fighters) died during the occupation, 17,800 civilians were killed by aerial bombardment and 35,000 people died in concentration camps. President. Emperor Menelik II was the leader of Ethiopia, and he successfully played European countries against each other while stockpiling weapons for his country. But at least the shimaglle, the serfs, the chewa, the artisans and the traders constitute definite classes. Ethiopia profile - Timeline 12 October 2020 A chronology of key events: 2nd century AD - Kingdom of Axum becomes a regional trading power. Markessini, Joan (2012). The First Italo-Ethiopian War resulted in the 1896 Battle of Adwa, in which Italy was decisively defeated, as the Ethiopians were numerically superior, better equipped and supported by Russia and France. But a stray bullet struck the king, and the Ethiopians decided to retire. During the First Italo-Ethiopian war, Italy sent. The emperor was imprisoned and would die a year later. His successor Yohannes IV engaged primarily in war and successfully fought the Egyptians and Mahdists before dying against the latter in 1889. [120] Some have blamed Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed for giving space to groups formerly banned by previous Tigrayan led governments, such as the Oromo Liberation Front, Ginbot 7, ONLF and Sidama Liberation Front . Final success was achieved by 1942. Munro-Hay cites the Muslim historian Abu Ja'far al-Khwarazmi/Kharazmi (who wrote before 833 CE) as stating that the capital of "the kingdom of Habash" was Jarma. Imperialism Stuff. [9] In 2010 fossilised animal bones, that were 3.4 million years old, were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them in the Lower Awash Valley by an international team, led by Shannon McPherron, which is the oldest evidence of stone tool use ever found anywhere in the world. Encyclopdia Britannica. Under Menelik II Ethiopia started its transformation to well organized technological advancement and the structure that the country has now. Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, ca. In 1932, the Kingdom of Jimma was formally absorbed into Ethiopia. [52], Gondar as a third long-term capital (after Aksum and Lalibela) of the Christian Kingdom was founded by Emperor Fasilides in 1636. The modern army was created under Ras Tafari Makonnen, in 1917, with the formation of the Kebur Zabagna, the imperial guard. November 4, 2020: Tigray regional forces launch surprise attack. Jan 5, 1850. . The Eritrean war for independence caused a string of events that led to the end of the empire in 1974 and the toppling of the Derg government in 1991, resulting in the independence of Eritrea by the Eritrean People's Liberation Front. After the death of Iyasu I the empire fell into a period of political turmoil. 241f, Hanibal Goitom, "Ethiopian Emperors and Slavery", Hanibal Goitom, "Abolition of Slavery in Ethiopia", Amare Asgedom, "Higher education in pre-revolution Ethiopia: Relevance and academic freedom. 2018 July - Ethiopia and Eritrea declare their war is over as Ethiopia agrees to evacuate disputed territory. One of this embassy was Father Francisco lvares, who wrote one of the earliest accounts of the country.[50]. His successor Afonso Mendes was less tactful, and excited the feelings of the people against him and his fellow Europeans. Due to migration and imperial expansion, it grew to include many other primarily Afro-Asiatic -speaking communities, including Amhara, Oromos, Somalis, Tigray, Afars, Sidama, Gurage, Agaw and Harari, among others. Bruce, James, Jean-Henri Castra, Charles-Joseph Panckoucke, Pierre Plassan, Ferret, Pierre Victor Ad., Joseph Germain Galinier. The Emperor returned from exile and the country became one of the founding members of the United Nations. During the early Solomonic period, Ethiopia went through military reforms and imperial expansion that allowed it to dominate the Horn of Africa. The earliest Muslim state in Ethiopia, the Makhzumi dynasty with its capital in Wahal, Hararghe region succeeds Queen Yodit. [7] The most well known hominid discovery is Lucy, found in the Awash Valley of Afar Region in 1974 by Donald Johanson, and is one of the most complete and best preserved, adult Australopithecine fossils ever uncovered. Despite this reverse, under Ezana and Kaleb the kingdom was at its height, benefiting from a large trade, which extended as far as India and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with the Byzantine Empire. 2nd century AD - Kingdom of Axum becomes a regional trading power. [27] According to Ethiopian tradition, she ruled over the remains of the Aksumite Empire for 40 years before transmitting the crown to her descendants. On 7 October 2013, Mulatu Teshome was elected president of the country. Mikael Sehul had compromised the power of the Emperor, and from this point forward it lay ever more openly in the hands of the great nobles and military commanders. Unless Jarma is a nickname for Axum (hypothetically from Ge'ez girma, "remarkable, revered"), the capital had moved from Axum to a new site, yet undiscovered.[38]. Decisively defeating it at the Battle of Adwa in 1896 using imported modern weapons, Menelik ensured Ethiopia's independence and confined Italy to Eritrea. Originally thought to have been in the Orient, eventually the search for Prester John's mythical kingdom focused on Africa and particularly, the Christian empire in Ethiopia. Ethiopia sent logistical support to the Transitional Federal Government opposing the Islamists. One inscription which was found at Axum states that he conquered the nation of the Bogos, and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his victory. Nevertheless, the country was formally annexed on May 9, 1936, and the Emperor went into exile. By 1896, the Empire incorporated other regions such as Hararghe, Gurage and Wolayita,[17] and saw its largest expansion with the federation of Eritrea in 1952. [90] The King of Italy (Victor Emmanuel III) was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia and the Italians created an Italian empire in Africa (Italian East Africa) with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia, with its capital Addis Abeba. On 16 February 2018, the government declared a six-month nationwide state of emergency following the resignation of Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn who said he wanted to clear the way for reforms. The schools were highly attractive to upper-class Ethiopians. Emperor Haile Selassie's reign was interrupted in 1935 when Italian forces invaded and occupied Ethiopia. International Crisis Group, "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents". The government's failure to effect significant economic and political reforms over the previous fourteen years created a climate of unrest.
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